tea-test-dao

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.hide-for-print{display:none!important} .show-for-print{display:inherit!important}} @media amzn-kf8,print{#header>h1:first-child{margin-top:1.25rem} .sect1{padding:0!important} .sect1+.sect1{border:0} #footer{background:none} #footer-text{color:rgba(0,0,0,.6);font-size:.9em}} @media amzn-kf8{#header,#content,#footnotes,#footer{padding:0}} </style> </head> <body class="manpage"> <div id="header"> <h1>gitcore-tutorial(7) Manual Page</h1> <h2 id="_name">NAME</h2> <div class="sectionbody"> <p>gitcore-tutorial - A Git core tutorial for developers</p> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <div class="sect1"> <h2 id="_synopsis">SYNOPSIS</h2> <div class="sectionbody"> <div class="paragraph"> <p>git *</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sect1"> <h2 id="_description">DESCRIPTION</h2> <div class="sectionbody"> <div class="paragraph"> <p>This tutorial explains how to use the "core" Git commands to set up and work with a Git repository.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>If you just need to use Git as a revision control system you may prefer to start with "A Tutorial Introduction to Git" (<a href="gittutorial.html">gittutorial(7)</a>) or <a href="user-manual.html">the Git User Manual</a>.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>However, an understanding of these low-level tools can be helpful if you want to understand Git’s internals.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>The core Git is often called "plumbing", with the prettier user interfaces on top of it called "porcelain". You may not want to use the plumbing directly very often, but it can be good to know what the plumbing does when the porcelain isn’t flushing.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Back when this document was originally written, many porcelain commands were shell scripts. For simplicity, it still uses them as examples to illustrate how plumbing is fit together to form the porcelain commands. The source tree includes some of these scripts in contrib/examples/ for reference. Although these are not implemented as shell scripts anymore, the description of what the plumbing layer commands do is still valid.</p> </div> <div class="admonitionblock note"> <table> <tr> <td class="icon"> <div class="title">Note</div> </td> <td class="content"> Deeper technical details are often marked as Notes, which you can skip on your first reading. </td> </tr> </table> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sect1"> <h2 id="_creating_a_git_repository">Creating a Git repository</h2> <div class="sectionbody"> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Creating a new Git repository couldn’t be easier: all Git repositories start out empty, and the only thing you need to do is find yourself a subdirectory that you want to use as a working tree - either an empty one for a totally new project, or an existing working tree that you want to import into Git.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>For our first example, we’re going to start a totally new repository from scratch, with no pre-existing files, and we’ll call it <em>git-tutorial</em>. To start up, create a subdirectory for it, change into that subdirectory, and initialize the Git infrastructure with <em>git init</em>:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ mkdir git-tutorial $ cd git-tutorial $ git init</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>to which Git will reply</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>Initialized empty Git repository in .git/</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>which is just Git’s way of saying that you haven’t been doing anything strange, and that it will have created a local <code>.git</code> directory setup for your new project. You will now have a <code>.git</code> directory, and you can inspect that with <em>ls</em>. For your new empty project, it should show you three entries, among other things:</p> </div> <div class="ulist"> <ul> <li> <p>a file called <code>HEAD</code>, that has <code>ref: refs/heads/master</code> in it. This is similar to a symbolic link and points at <code>refs/heads/master</code> relative to the <code>HEAD</code> file.</p> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Don’t worry about the fact that the file that the <code>HEAD</code> link points to doesn’t even exist yet — you haven’t created the commit that will start your <code>HEAD</code> development branch yet.</p> </div> </li> <li> <p>a subdirectory called <code>objects</code>, which will contain all the objects of your project. You should never have any real reason to look at the objects directly, but you might want to know that these objects are what contains all the real <em>data</em> in your repository.</p> </li> <li> <p>a subdirectory called <code>refs</code>, which contains references to objects.</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>In particular, the <code>refs</code> subdirectory will contain two other subdirectories, named <code>heads</code> and <code>tags</code> respectively. They do exactly what their names imply: they contain references to any number of different <em>heads</em> of development (aka <em>branches</em>), and to any <em>tags</em> that you have created to name specific versions in your repository.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>One note: the special <code>master</code> head is the default branch, which is why the <code>.git/HEAD</code> file was created points to it even if it doesn’t yet exist. Basically, the <code>HEAD</code> link is supposed to always point to the branch you are working on right now, and you always start out expecting to work on the <code>master</code> branch.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>However, this is only a convention, and you can name your branches anything you want, and don’t have to ever even <em>have</em> a <code>master</code> branch. A number of the Git tools will assume that <code>.git/HEAD</code> is valid, though.</p> </div> <div class="admonitionblock note"> <table> <tr> <td class="icon"> <div class="title">Note</div> </td> <td class="content"> An <em>object</em> is identified by its 160-bit SHA-1 hash, aka <em>object name</em>, and a reference to an object is always the 40-byte hex representation of that SHA-1 name. The files in the <code>refs</code> subdirectory are expected to contain these hex references (usually with a final <code>\n</code> at the end), and you should thus expect to see a number of 41-byte files containing these references in these <code>refs</code> subdirectories when you actually start populating your tree. </td> </tr> </table> </div> <div class="admonitionblock note"> <table> <tr> <td class="icon"> <div class="title">Note</div> </td> <td class="content"> An advanced user may want to take a look at <a href="gitrepository-layout.html">gitrepository-layout(5)</a> after finishing this tutorial. </td> </tr> </table> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>You have now created your first Git repository. Of course, since it’s empty, that’s not very useful, so let’s start populating it with data.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sect1"> <h2 id="_populating_a_git_repository">Populating a Git repository</h2> <div class="sectionbody"> <div class="paragraph"> <p>We’ll keep this simple and stupid, so we’ll start off with populating a few trivial files just to get a feel for it.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Start off with just creating any random files that you want to maintain in your Git repository. We’ll start off with a few bad examples, just to get a feel for how this works:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ echo "Hello World" >hello $ echo "Silly example" >example</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>you have now created two files in your working tree (aka <em>working directory</em>), but to actually check in your hard work, you will have to go through two steps:</p> </div> <div class="ulist"> <ul> <li> <p>fill in the <em>index</em> file (aka <em>cache</em>) with the information about your working tree state.</p> </li> <li> <p>commit that index file as an object.</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>The first step is trivial: when you want to tell Git about any changes to your working tree, you use the <em>git update-index</em> program. That program normally just takes a list of filenames you want to update, but to avoid trivial mistakes, it refuses to add new entries to the index (or remove existing ones) unless you explicitly tell it that you’re adding a new entry with the <code>--add</code> flag (or removing an entry with the <code>--remove</code>) flag.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>So to populate the index with the two files you just created, you can do</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ git update-index --add hello example</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>and you have now told Git to track those two files.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>In fact, as you did that, if you now look into your object directory, you’ll notice that Git will have added two new objects to the object database. If you did exactly the steps above, you should now be able to do</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ ls .git/objects/??/*</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>and see two files:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>.git/objects/55/7db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238 .git/objects/f2/4c74a2e500f5ee1332c86b94199f52b1d1d962</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>which correspond with the objects with names of <code>557db...</code> and <code>f24c7...</code> respectively.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>If you want to, you can use <em>git cat-file</em> to look at those objects, but you’ll have to use the object name, not the filename of the object:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ git cat-file -t 557db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>where the <code>-t</code> tells <em>git cat-file</em> to tell you what the "type" of the object is. Git will tell you that you have a "blob" object (i.e., just a regular file), and you can see the contents with</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ git cat-file blob 557db03</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>which will print out "Hello World". The object <code>557db03</code> is nothing more than the contents of your file <code>hello</code>.</p> </div> <div class="admonitionblock note"> <table> <tr> <td class="icon"> <div class="title">Note</div> </td> <td class="content"> Don’t confuse that object with the file <code>hello</code> itself. The object is literally just those specific <strong>contents</strong> of the file, and however much you later change the contents in file <code>hello</code>, the object we just looked at will never change. Objects are immutable. </td> </tr> </table> </div> <div class="admonitionblock note"> <table> <tr> <td class="icon"> <div class="title">Note</div> </td> <td class="content"> The second example demonstrates that you can abbreviate the object name to only the first several hexadecimal digits in most places. </td> </tr> </table> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Anyway, as we mentioned previously, you normally never actually take a look at the objects themselves, and typing long 40-character hex names is not something you’d normally want to do. The above digression was just to show that <em>git update-index</em> did something magical, and actually saved away the contents of your files into the Git object database.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Updating the index did something else too: it created a <code>.git/index</code> file. This is the index that describes your current working tree, and something you should be very aware of. Again, you normally never worry about the index file itself, but you should be aware of the fact that you have not actually really "checked in" your files into Git so far, you’ve only <strong>told</strong> Git about them.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>However, since Git knows about them, you can now start using some of the most basic Git commands to manipulate the files or look at their status.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>In particular, let’s not even check in the two files into Git yet, we’ll start off by adding another line to <code>hello</code> first:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ echo "It's a new day for git" >>hello</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>and you can now, since you told Git about the previous state of <code>hello</code>, ask Git what has changed in the tree compared to your old index, using the <em>git diff-files</em> command:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ git diff-files</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Oops. That wasn’t very readable. It just spit out its own internal version of a <em>diff</em>, but that internal version really just tells you that it has noticed that "hello" has been modified, and that the old object contents it had have been replaced with something else.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>To make it readable, we can tell <em>git diff-files</em> to output the differences as a patch, using the <code>-p</code> flag:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ git diff-files -p diff --git a/hello b/hello index 557db03..263414f 100644 --- a/hello +++ b/hello @@ -1 +1,2 @@ Hello World +It's a new day for git</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>i.e. the diff of the change we caused by adding another line to <code>hello</code>.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>In other words, <em>git diff-files</em> always shows us the difference between what is recorded in the index, and what is currently in the working tree. That’s very useful.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>A common shorthand for <code>git diff-files -p</code> is to just write <code>git diff</code>, which will do the same thing.</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ git diff diff --git a/hello b/hello index 557db03..263414f 100644 --- a/hello +++ b/hello @@ -1 +1,2 @@ Hello World +It's a new day for git</pre> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sect1"> <h2 id="_committing_git_state">Committing Git state</h2> <div class="sectionbody"> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Now, we want to go to the next stage in Git, which is to take the files that Git knows about in the index, and commit them as a real tree. We do that in two phases: creating a <em>tree</em> object, and committing that <em>tree</em> object as a <em>commit</em> object together with an explanation of what the tree was all about, along with information of how we came to that state.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Creating a tree object is trivial, and is done with <em>git write-tree</em>. There are no options or other input: <code>git write-tree</code> will take the current index state, and write an object that describes that whole index. In other words, we’re now tying together all the different filenames with their contents (and their permissions), and we’re creating the equivalent of a Git "directory" object:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ git write-tree</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>and this will just output the name of the resulting tree, in this case (if you have done exactly as I’ve described) it should be</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>8988da15d077d4829fc51d8544c097def6644dbb</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>which is another incomprehensible object name. Again, if you want to, you can use <code>git cat-file -t 8988d...</code> to see that this time the object is not a "blob" object, but a "tree" object (you can also use <code>git cat-file</code> to actually output the raw object contents, but you’ll see mainly a binary mess, so that’s less interesting).</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>However — normally you’d never use <em>git write-tree</em> on its own, because normally you always commit a tree into a commit object using the <em>git commit-tree</em> command. In fact, it’s easier to not actually use <em>git write-tree</em> on its own at all, but to just pass its result in as an argument to <em>git commit-tree</em>.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p><em>git commit-tree</em> normally takes several arguments — it wants to know what the <em>parent</em> of a commit was, but since this is the first commit ever in this new repository, and it has no parents, we only need to pass in the object name of the tree. However, <em>git commit-tree</em> also wants to get a commit message on its standard input, and it will write out the resulting object name for the commit to its standard output.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>And this is where we create the <code>.git/refs/heads/master</code> file which is pointed at by <code>HEAD</code>. This file is supposed to contain the reference to the top-of-tree of the master branch, and since that’s exactly what <em>git commit-tree</em> spits out, we can do this all with a sequence of simple shell commands:</p> </div> <div class="listingblock"> <div class="content"> <pre>$ tree=$(git write-tree) $ commit=$(echo 'Initial commit' | git commit-tree $tree) $ git update-ref HEAD $commit</pre> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>In this case this creates a totally new commit that is not related to anything else. Normally you do this only <strong>once</strong> for a project ever, and all later commits will be parented on top of an earlier commit.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Again, normally you’d never actually do this by hand. There is a helpful script called <code>git commit</code> that will do all of this for you. So you could have just written <code>git commit</code> instead, and it would have done the above magic scripting for you.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sect1"> <h2 id="_making_a_change">Making a change</h2> <div class="sectionbody"> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Remember how we did the <em>git update-index</em> on file <code>hello</code> and then we changed <code>hello</code> afterward, and could compare the new state of <code>hello</code> with the state we saved in the index file?</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Further, remember how I said that <em>git write-tree</em> writes the contents of the <strong>index</strong> file to the tree, and thus what we just committed was in fact the <strong>original</strong> contents of the file <code>hello</code>, not the new ones. We did that on purpose, to show the difference between the index state, and the state in the working tree, and how they don’t have to match, even when we commit things.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>As before, if we do <code>git diff-files -p</code> in our git-tutorial project, we’ll still see the same difference we saw last time: the index file hasn’t changed by the act of committing anything. However, now that we have committed something, we can also learn to use a new command: <em>git diff-index</em>.</p> </div> <div class="paragraph"> <p>Unlike <em>git diff-files</em>, which showed the difference between the index file and the working tree, <em>git diff-index</em> shows the differences between a committed <strong>tree</strong> and either the index file or the working tree. In other words, <em>git diff-index</em> wants a tree to be diffed against, and before we did the commit, we couldn’t do that, because we didn’t have anything to diff against.</p> </div> <div class=